The Scientific Method

The scientific process is conventionally defined as a process by which a discipline of professionals, such as scientists, as group and over time, seek to construct accurate representations of various kinds of phenomena, which is coherent, reliable, and not arbitrary. This method seeks to minimize the effect of bias and confounding variables in theories by being evidential. In what follows, the various components of this broad topic will be discussed, including a definitional overview of the four components of the scientific method, as well as the various models of scientific inquiry, such as the classical, pragmatic, and computational approach.

Explaining the Method

The scientific method is commonly thought to be composed of a four part process. The first part is the observation of phenomena which is the observation of any kind of action in the actual world. Once the observation is made, the next step of the process begins: hypothesis formulation. At this juncture, a notion is formed to explain what was observed in the previous step. In the hard sciences, such as physics, the hypothesis is likely to be a causal mechanism or a mathematical relationship. In the social sciences, case studies, surveys, and statistical methods are often used. The third step is prediction, in which the hypothesis formulated previously is used to either predict the existence of other phenomena or to quantitatively predict future occurrences of existing phenomena. The final step is experimentation, that tests the merit of the hypothesis formed establishing it as disproved or confirmed.

The strength of this method is that future theories may arise challenging long-standing assumptions about the observations under inquiry. A famous example of this is Galileo overturning the long standing geocentric model by using a telescope and proving the Copernican heliocentric model, showing that it is the sun and not the earth that is the center of the galaxy.

Further details on hypothesis testing and scientific integrity

Because a hypothesis can be either confirmed or disproved, it is imperative to either disqualify or modify a theory that does not agree with the results produced by experimentation. Therefore, experimental verification is necessary to establish the soundness of a given theory. Additionally, for any hypothesis to be viable it must be testable, otherwise it does not satisfy the definition of being a scientific theory.

Another important topic that arises in the discussion of the scientific method is the integrity of how the method is used in various parts of the analytical mechanism. Because each major discipline ensures integrity by different means, it is difficult to conduct an exhaustive discussion on this venue but a few examples will be provided to offer some insight into the topic. Common methods that researchers use to control for 'confounding variables' is double blind testing and placebo. It is common for experiments in certain disciplines to have a experimental group (individuals receiving the treatment) and control group (individuals not receiving the treatment). In such cases, to avoid bias on the part of researchers and experimental groups, neither the researcher nor the experimental group are told what party is the control and experimental. This avoids the placebo effect on the part of the control group and experimental bias by the researcher conducting the experiment.

Models of Scientific Inquiry

Different theories of scientific inquiry developed concurrently and interdependently with advances in technology and cultural diffusion. Below the classical, pragmatic, and computational models are discussed.

The Classical Model

This model was developed by Aristotle based on his notions regarding logic and reasoning as a whole, called organon. Aristotle distinguished between two kinds of reason: approximation and exact reasoning. Aristotle differentiated between different kinds of inferences such as deduction, where if the premises are accepted, then the conclusion derived from them must also be true. Another kind of inference was induction, where a general conclusion is reached from particulars.

The Pragmatic Model

The pragmatic model was introduced by American philosopher Charles Sanders Pierce. In his essay, "Fixation of Belief", Pierce asserts that the primary motive of inquiry is to ease the feeling of doubt when phenomena that challenges preexisting beliefs arises. According to Pierce, inquiry only lasts long enough to satisfy doubt. Pierce then discussed the various methods by which doubt may be satisfied, such as the method of tenacity, of authority, the A Priori method, and the scientific method. By using a method of challenging the viability of the first three, Pierce concludes that the scientific method is superior. 

Computational Approaches

Computational approaches look at contemporary methods of inquiry, such as applied logic, specialties within computer science, and inferential statistics to name a few. As the number of disciplines expanded and matured, especially in the 20th century, methods of inquiry and analysis developed concomitantly. Major rifts in methods used vary most obviously between the hard sciences and social sciences, but also between individual disciplines.

Resources:

Below is a variety for resources about the history of the scientific method including basic steps, key figures, and philosophical movements that struggled with the opportunities and challenges the method created. There are also resources on how the method is used in the social sciences, famous experiments across disciplines, and on scientism.

The scientific method- This resource explains the scientific method and the philosophical underpinnings that underlie it.

Steps of the Scientific Method: A basic guide to the steps of the scientific method.

History of the Scientific Method: Basic facts about the history of the method.

Scientific Method History: A more in depth look into history with supplemental material.

The Experimental Method and the Rise of Modern Science: Discusses key note figures in the rise of science as the dominant form of inquiry.

Pragmatism: A guide to the primary philosophical mover justifying the use of the method.

List of famous experiments: A vast resource spanning several disciplines of resources about famous experiments.

Scientific Method Data, Facts, Theories and Laws: Article discussing principles implicit in the practice of science.

Scientific method: A birds-eye-view of philosophical critiques pertaining to the method.

Scientism: An introduction into the notion of scientism.

Scientific Method in the Social Sciences: This article discusses how the method is used in the social sciences.